A widely cited 2011 study examining how motivation affects intelligence test scores has been retracted after it was discovered that one of the studies included in its meta-analysis had been retracted due to research misconduct.
Published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), the paper titled “Role of Test Motivation in Intelligence Testing” combined a meta-analysis and a longitudinal study. One of the key studies in the meta-analysis was a 1978 paper by psychologist Stephen Breuning, whose work came under scrutiny after a 1987 report by the National Institute of Mental Health found he had committed widespread data fabrication.
Although the 1978 study was not directly part of that original investigation, it was retracted in December 2024 due to serious doubts about data integrity. Upon learning of the retraction in January 2025, the authors of the 2011 PNAS paper—Angela Duckworth, Patrick Quinn, and Donald Lynam—reanalyzed their data, finding that the removal of Breuning’s study significantly altered the findings. While some effects remained statistically significant, evidence of publication bias across all tests rendered the results inconclusive.
The authors concluded that, despite their longitudinal findings remaining valid, the integrity of the paper as a whole was compromised and issued a full retraction on May 1, 2025.
The study had previously drawn 215 citations and had been under an expression of concern since February. Notably, research psychologist Russell Warne, who initially flagged the issue, expressed disappointment but supported the authors’ decision, calling it a responsible move in light of scientific fraud that was beyond their control.
This retraction serves as another stark reminder of the long-lasting consequences of research misconduct — even decades later — and its potential to influence scientific conclusions well into the future.